Applied Animal Biology Custom Book AGRC1020

1 Introduction:
Themes in the Study of Life 1
overview Inquiring About Life 1
concept 1.1 The themes of this book make connections across different areas of biology 2
Theme: New Properties Emerge at Each Level in the Biological Hierarchy 3
Theme: Organisms Interact with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment 6
Theme: Life Requires Energy Transfer and
Transformation 6
Theme: Structure and Function Are Correlated at All Levels of Biological Organisation 7
Theme: The Cell Is an Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function 8
Theme: The Continuity of Life Is Based on Heritable Information in the Form of DNA 8
Theme: Feedback Mechanisms Regulate Biological
Systems 10
Evolution, the Overarching Theme of Biology 11
concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life 11
Classifying the Diversity of Life 12
Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection 14
The Tree of Life 16
concept 1.3 In studying nature, scientists make observations and then form and test hypotheses 18
Making Observations 18
Forming and Testing Hypotheses 19
The Flexibility of the Scientific Method 20
A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Mimicry in Snake Populations 20
Theories in Science 23
concept 1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints 23
Building on the Work of Others 23
Science, Technology, and Society 24
The Value of Diverse Viewpoints in Science 25
1 The Chemistry of Life 28
Interview: Susan Solomon
2 The Chemical Context
of Life 30
overview A Chemical Connection to Biology 30
concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds 31
Elements and Compounds 31
The Elements of Life 32
Case Study: Evolution of Tolerance to Toxic Elements 32
concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms 33
Subatomic Particles 33
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass 33
Isotopes 34
The Energy Levels of Electrons 35
Electron Distribution and Chemical Properties 36
Electron Orbitals 37
concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms 38
Covalent Bonds 38
Ionic Bonds 39
Weak Chemical Bonds 40
Molecular Shape and Function 41
concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds 42
3
Water and Life 46
overview The Molecule That Supports All of Life 46
concept 3.1 Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bonding 46
concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s suitability for life 47
Cohesion of Water Molecules 47
Moderation of Temperature by Water 48
Floating of Ice on Liquid Water 49
Water: The Solvent of Life 50
Possible Evolution of Life on Other Planets with Water 52
concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living
organisms 52
Acids and Bases 53
The pH Scale 53
Buffers 54
Acidification: A Threat to Water Quality 55
4 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life 60
overview Carbon: The Backbone of Life 60
concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds 60
Organic Molecules and the Origin of Life on Earth 61
concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms 62
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon 62
Molecular Diversity Arising from Carbon Skeleton Variation 63
concept 4.3 A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules 65
The Chemical Groups Most Important in the Processes of Life 65
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes 68
The Chemical Elements of Life: A Review 68
5 The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules 70
overview The Molecules of Life 70
concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers 70
The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers 70
The Diversity of Polymers 71
concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material 71
Sugars 71
Polysaccharides 72
concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules 76
Fats 76
Phospholipids 78
Steroids 79
concept 5.4 Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions 79
Polypeptides 79
Protein Structure and Function 82
concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information 88
The Roles of Nucleic Acids 88
The Components of Nucleic Acids 89
Nucleotide Polymers 90
The Structures of DNA and RNA Molecules 90
DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution 91
The Theme of Emergent Properties in the Chemistry of Life: A Review 91
2 The Cell 94
Interview: Bonnie L. Bassler
6
A Tour of the Cell 96
overview The Fundamental Units of Life 96
concept 6.1 Biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry to study cells 96
Microscopy 96
Cell Fractionation 99
concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalise their functions 100
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 100
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell 101
concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes 104
The Nucleus: Information Central 104
Ribosomes: Protein Factories 104
concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell 106
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory 106
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving
Centre 107
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments 108
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments 109
The Endomembrane System: A Review 110
concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another 111
The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 111
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion 112
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy 112
Peroxisomes: Oxidation 113
concept 6.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibres that organises structures and activities in the cell 114
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility 114
Components of the Cytoskeleton 115
concept 6.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities 120
Cell Walls of Plants 120
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells 121
Cell Junctions 122
The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its
Parts 124
7 Membrane Structure
and Function 127
overview Life at the Edge 127
concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins 127
Membrane Models: Scientific Inquiry 127
The Fluidity of Membranes 129
Evolution of Differences in Membrane Lipid
Composition 130
Membrane Proteins and Their Functions 131
The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell–Cell Recognition 132
Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes 132
concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability 133
The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer 133
Transport Proteins 133
concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment 134
Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance 135
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided by Proteins 136
concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients 137
The Need for Energy in Active Transport 137
How Ion Pumps Maintain Membrane Potential 138
Cotransport: Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein 139
concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis 140
Exocytosis 140
Endocytosis 140
8
An Introduction to Metabolism 144
overview The Energy of Life 144
concept 8.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of thermodynamics 144
Organisation of the Chemistry of Life into Metabolic Pathways 144
Forms of Energy 145
The Laws of Energy Transformation 146
concept 8.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously 148
Free-Energy Change, DG 148
Free Energy, Stability, and Equilibrium 148
Free Energy and Metabolism 149
concept 8.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions 151
The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP 151
How the Hydrolysis of ATP Performs Work 152
The Regeneration of ATP 153
concept 8.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers 154
The Activation Energy Barrier 154
How Enzymes Lower the EA Barrier 155
Substrate Specificity of Enzymes 155
Catalysis in the Enzyme’s Active Site 156
Effects of Local Conditions on Enzyme Activity 157
The Evolution of Enzymes 159
concept 8.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism 160
Allosteric Regulation of Enzymes 160
Specific Localisation of Enzymes Within the Cell 162
9 Cellular Respiration
and Fermentation 165
overview Life Is Work 165
concept 9.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidising organic fuels 166
Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP 166
Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction 166
The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview 169
concept 9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidising glucose to pyruvate 170
concept 9.3 After pyruvate is oxidised, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules 172
Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA 172
The Citric Acid Cycle 172
concept 9.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis 174
The Pathway of Electron Transport 174
Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism 175
An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration 176
concept 9.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen 179
Types of Fermentation 179
Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration 180
The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis 181
concept 9.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways 181
The Versatility of Catabolism 181
Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways) 184
Regulation of Cellular Respiration Via Feedback Mechanisms 184

4 Mechanisms of Evolution 458
Interview: Geerat J. Vermeij
22 Descent with Modification:
A Darwinian View of Life 460
overview Endless Forms Most eautiful 460
concept 22.1 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species 461
Scala Naturae and Classification of Species 461
Ideas About Change over Time 462
Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution 462
concept 22.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life 463
Darwin’s Research 463
The Origin of Species 465
concept 22.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence 468
Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change 468
Homology 470
The Fossil Record 473
Biogeography 474
What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life? 475
25
The History of Life on Earth 515
overview Lost Worlds 515
concept 25.1 Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible 515
Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth 516
Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules 517
Protocells 517
Self-Replicating RNA and the Dawn of Natural Selection 517
concept 25.2 The fossil record documents the history of life 518
The Fossil Record 518
How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated 520
The Origin of New Groups of Organisms 520
concept 25.3 Key events in life’s history include the origins of single-celled and multicelled organisms and the colonisation of land 522
The First Single-Celled Organisms 522
The Origin of Multicellularity 525
The Colonisation of Land 526
concept 25.4 The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extinction rates 527
Plate Tectonics 527
Mass Extinctions 530
Adaptive Radiations 533
concept 25.5 Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of developmental genes 535
Effects of Developmental Genes 535
The Evolution of Development 536
concept 25.6 Evolution is not goal oriented 539
Evolutionary Novelties 539
Evolutionary Trends 540
5 The Evolutionary History of Biological Diversity 544
Interview: John Stanisic

32 An Overview of Animal
Diversity 670
overview Welcome to Your Kingdom 670
concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers 670
Nutritional Mode 670
Cell Structure and Specialisation 670
Reproduction and Development 671
concept 32.2 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years 672
Neoproterozoic Era (1 Billion–542 Million Years Ago) 672
Paleozoic Era (542–251 Million Years Ago) 673
Mesozoic Era (251–65.5 Million Years Ago) 674
Cainozoic Era (65.5 Million Years Ago to the Present) 674
concept 32.3 Animals can be characterised by “body plans” 674
Symmetry 674
Tissues 675
Body Cavities 676
Protostome and Deuterostome Development 676
concept 32.4 New views of animal phylogeny are emerging from molecular data 678
Points of Agreement 678
Progress in Resolving Bilaterian Relationships 679
Future Directions in Animal Systematics 680
33 An Introduction
to Invertebrates 682
overview Life Without a Backbone 682
concept 33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack true tissues 686
concept 33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans 687
Hydrozoans 688
Scyphozoans 688
Cubozoans 688
Anthozoans 689
concept 33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal body forms 690
Flatworms 690
Rotifers 692
Lophophorates: Ectoprocts and Brachiopods 693
Molluscs 693
Annelids 697
concept 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group 699
Nematodes 699
Arthropods 700
concept 33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes 708
Echinoderms 708
Chordates 710
34 The Origin and Evolution
of Vertebrates 713
overview Half a Billion Years of Backbones 713
concept 34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord 713
Derived Characters of Chordates 714
Lancelets 715
Tunicates 716
Early Chordate Evolution 716
concept 34.2 Craniates are chordates that have a head 717
Derived Characters of Craniates 717
The Origin of Craniates 718
Hagfishes 718
concept 34.3 Vertebrates are craniates that have a backbone 719
Derived Characters of Vertebrates 719
Lampreys 719
Fossils of Early Vertebrates 719
Origins of Bone and Teeth 720
concept 34.4 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws 720
Derived Characters of Gnathostomes 720
Fossil Gnathostomes 721
Chondrichthyans (Sharks, Rays, and Their Relatives) 721
Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins 723
concept 34.5 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs 725
Derived Characters of Tetrapods 725
The Origin of Tetrapods 725
Amphibians 726
concept 34.6 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg 729
Derived Characters of Amniotes 729
Early Amniotes 729
Reptiles 730
concept 34.7 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk 736
Derived Characters of Mammals 736
Early Evolution of Mammals 737
Monotremes 737
Marsupials 738
Eutherians (Placental Mammals) 739
concept 34.8 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion 744
Derived Characters of Humans 744
The Earliest Hominins 744
Australopiths 745
Bipedalism 746
Tool Use 746
Early Homo 747
Neanderthals 747
Homo sapiens 748
7 Animal Form and Function 870
Interview: Baldomero M. Olivera
40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function 872
overview Diverse Forms, Common Challenges 872
concept 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organisation 873
Evolution of Animal Size and Shape 873
Exchange with the Environment 874
Hierarchical Organisation of Body Plans 874
Coordination and Control 877
concept 40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals 880
Regulating and Conforming 880
Homeostasis 881
concept 40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behaviour 883
Endothermy and Ectothermy 883
Variation in Body Temperature 884
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain 884
Acclimatisation in Thermoregulation 887
Physiological Thermostats and Fever 888
concept 40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment 889
Energy Allocation and Use 889
Quantifying Energy Use 889
Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation 890
Influences on Metabolic Rate 890
Energy Budgets 891
Torpor and Energy Conservation 891
41
Animal Nutrition 895
overview The Need to Feed 895
concept 41.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic molecules, and essential nutrients 895
Essential Nutrients 896
Dietary Deficiencies 898
Assessing Nutritional Needs 899
concept 41.2 The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination 900
Digestive Compartments 900
concept 41.3 Organs specialised for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system 903
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Oesophagus 903
Digestion in the Stomach 905
Digestion in the Small Intestine 907
Absorption in the Small Intestine 907
Absorption in the Large Intestine 908
concept 41.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet 909
Dental Adaptations 909
Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations 910
Mutualistic Adaptations 910
concept 41.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite 911
Regulation of Digestion 911
Regulation of Energy Storage 912
Regulation of Appetite and Consumption 913
Obesity and Evolution 914
42
Circulation and Gas Exchange 917
overview Trading Places 917
concept 42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body 917
Gastrovascular Cavities 918
Evolutionary Variation in Circulatory Systems 918
Organisation of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems 919
concept 42.2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals 922
Mammalian Circulation 922
The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look 922
Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat 924
concept 42.3 Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels 925
Blood Vessel Structure and Function 925
Blood Flow Velocity 925
Blood Pressure 926
Capillary Function 928
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System 929
concept 42.4 Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defence 930
Blood Composition and Function 930
Cardiovascular Disease 933
concept 42.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialised respiratory surfaces 935
Partial Pressure Gradients in Gas Exchange 935
Respiratory Media 935
Respiratory Surfaces 936
Gills in Aquatic Animals 936
Tracheal Systems in Insects 937
Lungs 938
concept 42.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs 940
How an Amphibian Breathes 940
How a Bird Breathes 940
How a Mammal Breathes 941
Control of Breathing in Humans 942
concept 42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases 943
Coordination of Circulation and Gas Exchange 943
Respiratory Pigments 943
Respiratory Adaptations of Diving Mammals 945
43
The Immune System 949
overview Recognition and Response 949
concept 43.1 In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens 950
Innate Immunity of Invertebrates 950
Innate Immunity of Vertebrates 952
Evasion of Innate Immunity by Pathogens 954
concept 43.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition 955
Antigen Recognition by B Cells and Antibodies 955
Antigen Recognition by T Cells 956
B Cell and T Cell Development 957
concept 43.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells 960
Helper T Cells: A Response to Nearly All Antigens 960
Cytotoxic T Cells: A Response to Infected Cells 961
B Cells and Antibodies: A Response to Extracellular Pathogens 962
Summary of the Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses 964
Active and Passive Immunisation 964
Antibodies as Tools 965
Immune Rejection 965
concept 43.4 Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease 966
Exaggerated, Self-Directed, and Diminished Immune Responses 966
Evolutionary Adaptations of Pathogens That Underlie Immune System Avoidance 968
Cancer and Immunity 970
Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium 1011
Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress 1012
Gonadal Sex Hormones 1014
Melatonin and Biorhythms 1015
46
Animal Reproduction 1018
overview Pairing Up for Sexual Reproduction 1018
concept 46.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom 1018
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction 1018
Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma 1019
Reproductive Cycles 1020
Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction 1020
concept 46.2 Fertilisation depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species 1021
Ensuring the Survival of Offspring 1022
Gamete Production and Delivery 1023
Differences Between Monotreme, Marsupial, and Placental Mammals 1023
Factors Influencing Reproductive Success 1026
concept 46.3 Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes 1026
Female Reproductive Anatomy 1026
Male Reproductive Anatomy 1028
Gametogenesis 1029
concept 46.4 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates mammalian reproduction 1032
Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles 1032
Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System 1034
Human Sexual Response 1035
concept 46.5 In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus 1035
Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth 1036
Maternal Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Foetus 1039
Contraception and Abortion 1039
Modern Reproductive Technologies 1041
47
Animal Development 1045
overview A Body-Building Plan 1045
concept 47.1 Fertilisation and cleavage initiate embryonic development 1046
Fertilisation 1046
Cleavage 1049
concept 47.2 Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival 1051
Gastrulation 1051
Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes 1055
Organogenesis 1055
Mechanisms of Morphogenesis 1057
concept 47.3 Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals contribute to cell fate specification 1059
Fate Mapping 1059
Cell Fate Determination and Pattern Formation by Inductive Signals 1063
48 Neurons, Synapses,
and Signalling 1069
overview Lines of Communication 1069
concept 48.1 Neuron organisation and structure reflect function in information transfer 1069
Introduction to Information Processing 1070
Neuron Structure and Function 1070
concept 48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron 1072
Formation of the Resting Potential 1072
Modelling the Resting Potential 1073
concept 48.3 Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons 1074
Hyperpolarisation and Depolarisation 1074
Graded Potentials and Action Potentials 1074
Generation of Action Potentials: A Closer Look 1075
Conduction of Action Potentials 1077
concept 48.4 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses 1079
Generation of Postsynaptic Potentials 1080
Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials 1080
Modulated Signalling at Synapses 1081
Neurotransmitters 1081
49
Nervous Systems 1086
overview Command and Control Centre 1086
concept 49.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells 1086
Organisation of the Vertebrate Nervous System 1087
Glia 1089
The Peripheral Nervous System 1090
concept 49.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally specialised 1091
Arousal and Sleep 1091
Biological Clock Regulation 1094
Emotions 1095
concept 49.3 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions 1096
Language and Speech 1096
Lateralisation of Cortical Function 1097
Information Processing 1098
Frontal Lobe Function 1099
Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates 1099
concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning 1100
Neural Plasticity 1100
Memory and Learning 1101
Long-Term Potentiation 1101
Stem Cells in the Brain 1102
concept 49.5 Many nervous system disorders can be explained in molecular terms 1103
Schizophrenia 1103
Depression 1104
Drug Addiction and the Brain’s Reward System 1104
Alzheimer’s Disease 1105
Parkinson’s Disease 1105
50 Sensory and Motor
Mechanisms 1109
overview Sensing and Acting 1109
concept 50.1 Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system 1109
Sensory Pathways 1110
Types of Sensory Receptors 1112
concept 50.2 The mechanoreceptors responsible for hearing and equilibrium detect moving fluid or settling particles 1114
Sensing of Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates 1114
Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals 1114
Hearing and Equilibrium in Other Vertebrates 1118
concept 50.3 Visual receptors in diverse animals depend on light-absorbing pigments 1119
Evolution of Visual Perception 1119
The Vertebrate Visual System 1121
concept 50.4 The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory receptors 1125
Taste in Mammals 1125
Smell in Humans 1126
concept 50.5 The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function 1127
Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle 1128
Other Types of Muscle 1133
concept 50.6 Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion 1134
Types of Skeletal Systems 1135
Types of Locomotion 1136
Energy Costs of Locomotion 1139
51
Animal Behaviour 1144
overview The How and Why of Animal Activity 1144
concept 51.1 Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviours 1144
Fixed Action Patterns 1145
Migration 1145
Behavioural Rhythms 1146
Animal Signals and Communication 1146
concept 51.2 Learning establishes specific links between experience and behaviour 1149
Experience and Behaviour 1149
Learning 1149
concept 51.3 Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain most behaviours 1154
Foraging Behaviour 1154
Mating Behaviour and Mate Choice 1155
concept 51.4 Inclusive fitness can account for the evolution of behaviour, including altruism 1160
Genetic Basis of Behaviour 1160
Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behaviour 1161
Altruism 1163
Inclusive Fitness 1163
Evolution and Human Culture 1165
Appendix A Answers A–1
Appendix B Periodic Table of the Elements B–1
Appendix C The Metric System C–1
Appendix D A Comparison of the Light Microscope and the Electron Microscope D–1
Credits CR–1
Glossary G–1
Index I–1