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CONTENTS
To the Student xv
To the Instructor xvi
Preface xix
1 The Chemical World 1
1.1 Soda Pop Fizz 1
1.2 Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things 3
1.3 All Things Are Made of Atoms and Molecules 3
1.4 The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think 4
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Combustion and the Scientific Method 6
1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed 7
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 7
KEY TERMS 8
EXERCISES 8
2
Measurement and Problem Solving 11
2.1 Measuring Global Temperatures 11
2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small
Numbers 12
2.3 Significant Figures: Writing Numbers
to Reflect Precision 14
Counting Significant Figures 15
Exact Numbers 16
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 17
Multiplication and Division 17
Rounding 17
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The COBE Satellite and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Our Cosmic Past 18
Addition and Subtraction 19
Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division and Addition/Subtraction 21
2.5 The Basic Units of Measurement 22
The Standard Units 22
Prefix Multipliers 23
Derived Units 24
2.6 Problem Solving and Unit Conversions 25
Converting between Units 25
General Problem-Solving Stategy 27
? Problem-Solving Procedure Solving Unit
Conversion Problems 28
2.7 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion Problems 29
2.8 Units Raised to a Power 31
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drug Dosage 32
2.9 Density 34
Calculating Density 34
Density as a Conversion Factor 35
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Density, Cholesterol,
and Heart Disease 36
2.10 Numerical Problem-Solving Overview 37
? Problem-Solving Procedure Solving Numerical
Problems 38
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 39
KEY TERMS 44
EXERCISES 44
3
Matter and Energy 55
3.1 In Your Room 55
3.2 What Is Matter? 56
3.3 Classifying Matter According to Its State:
Solid, Liquid, and Gas 57
3.4 Classifying Matter According to Its Composition:
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 58
3.5 How We Tell Different Kinds of Matter Apart:
Physical and Chemical Properties 61
3.6 How Matter Changes: Physical and Chemical Changes 63
Separating Mixtures through Physical Changes 65
3.7 Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter 65
3.8 Energy 66
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Getting Energy
out of Nothing? 67
Units of Energy 67
3.9 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change 69
3.10 Temperature: Random Motion of Molecules
and Atoms 70
3.11 Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity 74
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Coolers, Camping,
and the Heat Capacity of Water 74
3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations 75
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 79
KEY TERMS 83
EXERCISES 84
4
Atoms and Elements 93
4.1 Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon 93
4.2 Indivisible: The Atomic Theory 94
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Atoms and Humans 95
4.3 The Nuclear Atom 95
4.4 The Properties of Protons, Neutrons,
and Electrons 97
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Solid Matter? 98
4.5 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons 99
4.6 Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law and the
Periodic Table 102
4.7 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 106
Ions and the Periodic Table 107
4.8 Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies 109
4.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass on
Element’s Atom 111
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Radioactive
Isotopes at Hanford, Washington 112
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 114
KEY TERMS 116
EXERCISES 116
5
Molecules and Compounds 127
5.1 Sugar and Salt 127
5.2 Compounds Display Constant Composition 128
5.3 Chemical Formulas: How to Represent
Compounds 129
Types of Chemical Formulas 132
5.4 A Molecular View of Elements and Compounds 133 Atomic Elements 133
Molecular Elements 133
Molecular Compounds 134
Ionic Compounds 134
5.5 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 135
? Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Formulas for
Ionic Compounds 136
5.6 Nomenclature: Naming Compounds 137
5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds 137
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation 138
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation 139 Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a Polyatomic Ion 140
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Polyatomic Ions 141
5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds 142
5.9 Naming Acids 144
Naming Binary Acids 144
Naming Oxyacids 144
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Acid Rain 146
5.10 Nomenclature Summary 146
Ionic Compounds 147
Molecular Compounds 147
Acids 147
5.11 Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule
or Formula Unit 148
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 149
KEY TERMS 153
EXERCISES 153
6
Chemical Composition 165
6.1 How Much Sodium? 165
6.2 Counting Nails by the Pound 166
6.3 Counting Atoms by the Gram 167
Converting between Moles and Number
of Atoms 167
Converting between Grams and Moles
of an Element 168
Converting between Grams of an Element
and Number of Atoms 171
6.4 Counting Molecules by the Gram 172
Converting between Grams and Moles
of a Compound 172
Converting between Grams of a Compound and Number of Molecules 174
6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors 175
Converting between Moles of a Compound
and Moles of a Constituent Element 176
Converting between Grams of a Compound
and Grams of a Constituent Element 177
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Chlorine in Chlorofluorocarbons 179
6.6 Mass Percent Composition of Compounds 180
6.7 Mass Percent Composition from a Chemical
Formula 181
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fluoridation of Drinking
Water 183
6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds 183
Calculating an Empirical Formula from
Experimental Data 184
? Problem-Solving Procedure Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data 185
6.9 Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds 186
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 188
KEY TERMS 194
EXERCISES 195
7 Chemical
Reactions 205
7.1 Kindergarten Volcanoes, Automobiles,
and Laundry Detergents 205
7.2 Evidence of a Chemical Reaction 206
7.3 The Chemical Equation 210
7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 212
? Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Balanced
Chemical Equations 212
7.5 Aqueous Solutions and Solubility: Compounds Dissolved in Water 214
Solubility 216
7.6 Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in Aqueous
Solution That Form a Solid 218
Predicting Precipitation Reactions 218
? Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Equations
for Precipitation Reactions 220
7.7 Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions
in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic,
and Net Ionic Equations 221
7.8 Acid–Base and Gas Evolution Reactions 223
Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions 223
Gas Evolution Reactions 224
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Neutralizing Excess
Stomach Acid 226
7.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 226
Combustion Reactions 227
7.10 Classifying Chemical Reactions 228
Classifying Chemical Reactions by What
Atoms Do 229
Classification Flowchart 231
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT The Reactions Involved in Ozone Depletion 233
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 233
KEY TERMS 238
EXERCISES 238
8
Quantities in Chemical Reactions 249
8.1 Global Warming: Too Much Carbon Dioxide 249
8.2 Making Pancakes: Relationships between Ingredients 250
8.3 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions 251
8.4 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions 253
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Controversy over Oxygenated Fuels 254
8.5 More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical
Yield, and Percent Yield 257
8.6 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and
Percent Yield from Initial Masses of Reactants 260 8.7 Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat Evolved or
Absorbed in a Reaction 264
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Bunsen Burners 265
Sign of OHrxn 265
Stoichiometry of OHrxn 266
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 268
KEY TERMS 271
EXERCISES 272
9
Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table 285
9.1 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom 285
9.2 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation 287
9.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 288
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Radiation Treatment for
Cancer 290
9.4 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits 291
9.5 The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms with Orbitals 294
Baseball Paths and Electron Probability Maps 294 From Orbits to Orbitals 295
9.6 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals 295
Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals 298
9.7 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 302
Valence Electrons 302
9.8 The Explanatory Power of the
Quantum-Mechanical Model 305
9.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization
Energy, and Metallic Character 307
Atomic Size 307
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Pumping Ions:
Atomic Size and Nerve Impulses 309
Ionization Energy 309
Metallic Character 311
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 312
KEY TERMS 315
EXERCISES 315
10 Chemical
Bonding 325
10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 325
10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 326
10.3 Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds:
Electrons Transferred 327
10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared 328
Double and Triple Bonds 329
10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent
Compounds 330
? Problem-Solving Procedure Writing Lewis
Structures for Covalent Compounds 331
Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions 332 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 333
10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures for the Same Molecule 334
10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules 335
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT The Lewis
Structure of Ozone 336
? Problem-Solving Procedure Predicting Geometry
Using VSEPR Theory 338
Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper 339
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fooled by Molecular
Shape 340
10.8 Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil
and Water Don’t Mix 341
Electronegativity 341
Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules 343
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY How Soap Works 345
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 346
KEY TERMS 349
EXERCISES 349
11 Gases 359
11.1 Extra-Long Straws 359
11.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases 360
11.3 Pressure: The Result of Constant Molecular Collisions 362
Pressure Units 363
Pressure Unit Conversion 364
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Airplane Cabin
Pressurization 365
11.4 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume 366
11.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 370
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Extra-long Snorkels 371
11.6 The Combined Gas Law: Pressure, Volume,
and Temperature 375
11.7 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles 377
11.8 The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume,
Temperature, and Moles 379
Molar Mass of a Gas from the Ideal Gas Law 383
11.9 Mixtures of Gases: Why Deep-Sea Divers
Breathe a Mixture of Helium and Oxygen 385
Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressure 387
Collecting Gases over Water 388
11.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions 389
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature
and Pressure 392
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENTAir Pollution 394
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 395
KEY TERMS 399
EXERCISES 399
Liquids, Solids,
12 and Intermolecular
Forces 411
12.1 Interactions between Molecules 411
12.2 Properties of Liquids and Solids 412
12.3 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface
Tension and Viscosity 413
Surface Tension 413
Viscosity 414
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Why Are Water Drops
Spherical? 415
12.4 Evaporation and Condensation 415
Boiling 417
Energetics of Evaporation and Condensation 418 Heat of Vaporization 419
12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation 420
Energetics of Melting and Freezing 420
Heat of Fusion 421
Sublimation 424
12.6 Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion, Dipole–Dipole, and Hydrogen Bonding 425
Dispersion Force 425
Dipole–Dipole Force 426
Hydrogen Bonding 428
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Hydrogen Bonding
in DNA 430
12.7 Types of Crystalline Solids: Molecular, Ionic,
and Atomic 431
Molecular Solids 431
Ionic Solids 432 Atomic Solids 432
12.8 Water: A Remarkable Molecule 434
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Water
Pollution 435
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 436
KEY TERMS 439
EXERCISES 440
13Solutions 447
13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon 447
13.2 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures 448
13.3 Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water:
How to Make Rock Candy 449
Solubility and Saturation 450
Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved Ionic Solids 451 How Solubility Varies with Temperature 452
Rock Candy 452
13.4 Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda Pop
Gets Its Fizz 452
13.5 Specifying Solution Concentration:
Mass Percent 454
Mass Percent 454
Using Mass Percent in Calculations 455
13.6 Specifying Solution Concentration: Molarity 457
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT The Dirty Dozen 458 Using Molarity in Calculations 459
Ion Concentrations 461
13.7 Solution Dilution 461
13.8 Solution Stoichiometry 463
13.9 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point
Elevation: Making Water Freeze Colder
and Boil Hotter 466
Freezing Point Depression 466
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Antifreeze in Frogs 468
Boiling Point Elevation 468
13.10 Osmosis: Why Drinking Salt Water Causes
Dehydration 469
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Solutions in Medicine 471
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 472
KEY TERMS 477
EXERCISES 477
Acids and
Bases 487
14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International Spy Movies 487
14.2 Acids: Properties and Examples 488
14
14.3 Bases: Properties and Examples 489
14.4 Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases 490
The Arrhenius Definition 490
The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 491
14.5 Reactions of Acids and Bases 493
Neutralization Reactions 493
Acid Reactions 494
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY What Is in My Antacid? 496
Base Reactions 496
14.6 Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify the
Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution 496
14.7 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 499
Strong Acids 499 Weak Acids 500 Strong Bases 502 Weak Bases 503
14.8 Water: Acid and Base in One 504
14.9 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to Express
Acidity and Basicity 507
Calculating pH from [H30+] 508
Calculating [H30+] from pH 509
The pOH Scale 510
14.10 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change 511
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Alkaloids 512
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH The Danger of Antifreeze 514
14.11 Acid Rain: An Environmental Problem Related
to Fossil Fuel Combustion 514
Acid Rain Damage 515
Acid Rain Legislation 515
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 516
KEY TERMS 521
EXERCISES 521
15 Chemical
Equilibrium 531
15.1 Life: Controlled Disequilibrium 531
15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction 532
Collision Theory 532
How Concentration Affects the Rate of a Reaction 534 How Temperature Affects the Rate of a Reaction 535
15.3 The Idea of Dynamic Chemical Equilibrium 536
15.4 The Equilibrium Constant:A Measure of How
Far a Reaction Goes 539
Writing Equilibrium Expressions for Chemical Reactions 539
The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant 540
15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: The Equilibrium Expression for Reactions Involving a Solid or a Liquid 542
15.6 Calculating and Using Equilibrium Constants 543
Calculating Equilibrium Constants 543
Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations 544
15.7 Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium:
Le Châtelier’s Principle 546
15.8 The Effect of a Concentration Change
on Equilibrium 547
15.9 The Effect of a Volume Change on Equilibrium 550
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH How a Developing Fetus
Gets Oxygen from Its Mother 552
15.10 The Effect of a Temperature Change
on Equilibrium 553
15.11 The Solubility-Product Constant 555
Using Ksp to Determine Molar Solubility 556 EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Hard Water 557
15.12 The Path of a Reaction and the Effect
of a Catalyst 558
How Activation Energies Affect Reaction Rates 558 Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy 559
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 561
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 562
KEY TERMS 566
EXERCISES 566
16 Oxidation and Reduction 577
16.1 The End of the Internal Combustion Engine? 577
16.2 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions 578
16.3 Oxidation States: Electron Bookkeeping 581
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Bleaching of Hair 583
16.4 Balancing Redox Equations 584
? Problem-Solving Procedure Balancing Redox
Equations Using the Half-Reaction Method 585
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Photosynthesis
and Respiration: Energy for Life 589
16.5 The Activity Series: Predicting Spontaneous
Redox Reactions 589
Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid 592 16.6 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate
Electricity 593
Dry-Cell Batteries 595
Lead-Acid Storage Batteries 596 Fuel Cells 596
16.7 Electrolysis: Using Electricity to Do Chemistry 597
16.8 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions 598
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer 599
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 600
KEY TERMS 603
EXERCISES 603
17 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry 613
17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis 613
17.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity 614
17.3 Types of Radioactivity: Alpha, Beta,
and Gamma Decay 615
Alpha (a) Radiation 616
Beta (13) Radiation 618
Gamma (y) Radiation 619
Positron Emission 619
17.4 Detecting Radioactivity 621
17.5 Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life 622
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Environmental Radon 624
A Natural Radioactive Decay Series 624
17.6 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to
Measure the Age of Fossils and Other Artifacts 625
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Shroud of Turin 627
17.7 The Discovery of Fission and the Atomic Bomb 627
17.8 Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate
Electricity 629
17.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun 631
17.10 The Effects of Radiation on Life 631
Acute Radiation Damage 631
Increased Cancer Risk 631
Genetic Defects 632
Measuring Radiation Exposure 632
17.11 Radioactivity in Medicine 632
Isotope Scanning 632
Radiotherapy 633
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 634
KEY TERMS 636
EXERCISES 636
18 Organic
Chemistry 643
18.1 What Do I Smell? 643
18.2 Vitalism: The Difference between Organic
and Inorganic 644 18.3 Carbon: A Versatile Atom 645
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Origin of Life 646
18.4 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing
Only Carbon and Hydrogen 647
18.5 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons 648
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA Environmental
Problems Associated with Hydrocarbon Combustion 649
18.6 Isomers: Same Formula, Different Structure 653
18.7 Naming Alkanes 654
? Problem-Solving Procedure Naming Alkanes 655
18.8 Alkenes and Alkynes 657
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes 658
18.9 Hydrocarbon Reactions 660
Alkane Substitution Reactions 660
Alkene and Alkyne Addition Reactions 661
18.10 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 662
Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons 663
18.11 Functional Groups 665
18.12 Alcohols 666
Naming Alcohols 666
About Alcohols 666
18.13 Ethers 667
Naming Ethers 667
About Ethers 667
18.14 Aldehydes and Ketones 668
Naming Aldehydes and Ketones 668
About Aldehydes and Ketones 669
18.15 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 670
Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters 671
About Carboxylic Acids and Esters 671
18.16 Amines 673
18.17 Polymers 674
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Kevlar: Stronger
Than Steel 676
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 677
KEY TERMS 680
EXERCISES 681
19 Biochemistry 695
19.1 The Human Genome Project 695
19.2 The Cell and Its Main Chemical Components 696
19.3 Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Fiber 696
Monosaccharides 697
Disaccharides 698
Polysaccharides 699
19.4 Lipids 701
Fatty Acids 701
Fats and Oils 702
Other Lipids 704 CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Dietary Fats 706
19.5 Proteins 706
19.6 Protein Structure 711
Primary Structure 712
Secondary Structure 712
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Why Hair Gets Longer
When It Is Wet 714
Tertiary Structure 714
Quaternary Structure 715
19.7 Nucleic Acids: Molecular Blueprints 716
19.8 DNA Structure, DNA Replication, and Protein Synthesis 718
DNA Structure 718
DNA Replication 720
Protein Synthesis 721
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drugs for Diabetes 723
CHAPTER IN REVIEW 723
KEY TERMS 725
EXERCISES 725
Appendix: Mathematics Review MR-1
Glossary G-1
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A-1
Photo Credits PC-1
Index I-1
Problem-Solving Procedures
Solving Unit Conversion Problems 28
Solving Numerical Problems 38
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 136
Obtaining an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data 185
Writing Balanced Chemical Equations 212
Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions 220
Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds 331
Predicting Geometry Using VSEPR Theory 338
Balancing Redox Equations Using the Half-Reaction Method 585
Naming Alkanes 655
Introductory chemistry students need to develop problem-solving skills, and they also must see why these skills are important to them and to their world. Introductory Chemistry Essentials, Fourth Edition extends chemistry from the laboratory to the student’s world, motivating students to learn chemistry by demonstrating how it is manifested in their daily lives. Throughout, the Fourth Edition presents a new student-friendly, step-by-step problem-solving approach that adds four steps to each worked example (Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check). Tro’s acclaimed pedagogical features include Solution Maps, Two-Column Examples, Three-Column Problem-Solving Procedures, and Conceptual Checkpoints.